Book announced at https://linguistlist.org/issues/34.647

AUTHOR: Dat Bao
TITLE: Silence in English Language Pedagogy
SUBTITLE: From Research to Practice
PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press
YEAR: 2023

REVIEWER: Hanae Ezzaouya

Silence in English Language Pedagogy: From Research to Practice- Bao Dat, 2023
Summary
Silence is often an overlooked research area of language learning. As it plays an instrumental role in the dynamics of language acquisition, the book “Silence in English Language Pedagogy: From Research to Practice” adopts an unconventional perspective towards analyzing silence, focusing mainly on its positive potential in the classroom, and bridging the gap between research and practice to offer guidance on the use of silence in the classroom. This book is intended for any research community and student of applied linguistics, any academic community of Teaching English for Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), and any language teachers and educators. In the 200 pages of the book, ten main chapters are found, each tackling an array of themes. The first five chapters explore the existing literature around silence, from embracing silence in education, to the presence of silence in Second Language Acquisition (SLA), to the trends of silence in research, to the elements that shape pedagogy for silence, finally to problematizing silence. The second five chapters unravel practical and innovative principles of silence that are applicable to task-based instruction. These include ways of addressing classroom silence, online silence, coping with undesirable online silence, silence in English Language Teaching (ELT) task design, and further ideas for research on silence.
Starting with the first five chapters, embracing silence in education, Chapter 1 features the complexity of defining silence in education and suggests that silence ought not be solely restricted to concepts such as the silent period (Krashen, 1985), low comprehension, or lack of conversational initiation (Saville-Troike, 1988), but rather be seen as context-dependent and involving cognitive processes that do not implicate a productive verbal participation (Bao, 2023). This invitation to broaden the understanding of silence in pedagogy captures the complexity of defining silence and calls for the necessity to enhance ELT through embracing silence and speech alike in teaching practices.
The second chapter sheds light on the relationship between silence in SLA settings and verbal output. It shows how existing literature such as Levelt’s (1989) speech production model and Long’s (1996) interaction hypothesis overlook the connection between learners’ output and silent thinking and miss on contextualizing silence in education whilst considering social competence and cultural appropriateness as influential factors. Moreover, various types of silence can affect the learning process differently. While silence can facilitate language input and attentive listening, its effectiveness depends on learners’ comprehension abilities. Examining the scholarly attitudes toward silence in SLA, different interpretations have been posited; notably that silence is a thought that cannot be heard, a speech that can be heard by the thinker, a delay in speech, an incompetence in communication, a psychological self-defense against criticism, or a mediating tool in social contexts (Bao, 2023). The unsettling nature of silence interpretation poses a challenge for educators as they wonder whether to make it serve pedagogical needs or respond to it as a natural occurrence.
This closely relates to trends of silence research summarized in Chapter 3. The chapter shows the evolvement of silence research from the 1970s where the dynamics of inner speech are investigated, to the early and mid-1900s where causes of silence and interventions against it are explored, until the mid- and late- 2020s where learner and teacher views on silence and productive silence are examined. Views on silence divided into anti-silence (Tatar, 2005; Al-Halawachy, 2014; Qian, 2020) and pro-silence (Bao, 2002; Wuttke, 2012; Yi, 2020), and intervention designs split between humanistic (Dallimore et al., 2006; Yashima et al., 2018; King et al., 2020) and technical (Reinsch & Wambsganss, 1994; Boniecki & Moore, 2003) types. Moreover, the theoretical development of silence witnessed instability, as concepts such as the silent period created controversy. Silence within language education is complex, however findings from silence studies show a potential to transform pedagogy and advance ELT.
Moving to the fourth chapter, which delves into the elements that shape pedagogy for silence, it was established that understanding silence and using it as a resource are key elements in advancing ELT pedagogy. Teachers are recommended to treat silence as meaningful and valuable pauses that hold thoughts, and learners are encouraged to use it effectively for reflection and avoid delayed communication. In particular, teachers are called to use five principles: using silence to manage the shared learning space, nurturing the functions of productive silence, providing conditions for productive silence, understanding the learning value of mental rehearsal, and following up on the outcome of mental rehearsal; and learners are called to use six strategies: namely, practice of inner speech, interaction with resources, the use of scripted speech, personal visualization, creation of output from listening, and the need to follow up on what silence produces (Bao, 2023). A skillful use of silence can aid internal reflection and external speech.
Finally, the fifth chapter problematizes silence and emphasizes the importance of understanding it without prejudice as an evolving dynamic process affected by context, internal factors, and external factors, such as individual personalities and the interactive process. More importantly, it shows scenarios where silence fails to be productive; notably, silence as cultural immobility, as subject to misjudgment, as mind wandering, as out of context, as resistance to poor pedagogy, as a lack of response, and as arising from demotivational dilemmas (Bao, 2023). To effectively deal with these, solutions were proposed, including, respectively, investigating international students’ communication moves between speech and silence, organizing silence and making its intention explicit, keeping lessons appealing, encouraging behavioral cultural compromises, inciting student engagement, reducing imposing undesirable emotions on students, reducing anxiety and confusion, allowing silence rule-sharing, and setting peer mentorship (Bao 2023).
Moving to the second five chapters, Chapter 6 discusses ways of improving classroom silence, a topic which shows that implementing strategies that alleviate unproductive silence can develop teaching approaches. The first step is to understand the reasons behind the learner’s silence. Learner silence can indicate a personal struggle due to self-perceived low fluency or being introverted or humble; a past struggle due to low self-esteem, feeling invisible, or family upbringing; or a present struggle due to the fast pace of discussion, unhelpful teachers, uninteresting content, lack of preparation, lack of time, uncertainty about participation, alienation from the teacher and peers, a mismatch between learners’ perception and behavior, and a mismatch in teacher–learner expectations (Bao, 2023). To cope with undesirable silence in the classroom, students from previous research (Bao 2002) proposed eight dimensions; namely, linguistic support which scaffolds verbal skills, metacognitive support which aids participation, developmental support which tracks learner progress, resourceful support which provides engaging materials, social and cultural support which fosters communication, emotional support, psychological support which considers mental health, and individualized support which builds good rapport with students. For these strategies to work, they need to be contextualized, practiced, reflected upon, and discussed with fellow colleagues for refinement.
The subsequent 7th and 8th chapters explore silence in online settings. Depending on its effect on learners, silence can be perceived as productive, unproductive, or mysterious. On the one hand, productive silence enhances belonging, access to materials, and task focus; and on the other hand, unproductive silence disrupts communication and leads to poor engagement and inconsistent attendance. Due to the enigmatic nature of silence, silence requires individual analysis. Common challenges of online silence include delayed student participation, lack of non-verbal cues, digital boredom, and teacher role pressure. Moreover, educators should recognize two types of silence: 'painful' and 'helpful', with the former indicating disengagement and the latter signifying engagement in various aspects of learning. To manage undesirable negative online silence, it must be transformed into productive silence or active participation. Productive silence can include preparation, explicit learning, reflection, and mental engagement. Participation can involve collecting resources, reading academic work, forum discussion, academic dialogue, and peer-discussions. Ten research-based strategies to enhance this include: making learning content engaging and useful, promoting personalized communication, setting clear participation protocols, mediating student workload and participation, scaffolding online learning, offering choices, varying task approaches, encouraging students to express themselves, collaborating with non-teaching staff, and maintaining teacher presence with social relevance (Bao, 2023).
Chapter 9 studies the underexplored dynamics between silence and task design and shows that to develop language proficiency effectively, there needs to be a balance between silence and speech in task-based designs. Designing these tasks is complex and requires teachers to be flexible, supportive, and innovative. Some students prefer spontaneous learning, others find tasks easier to reflectively approach. Pedagogical practices should therefore acknowledge mental processes as inherent parts of students’ learning repertoire, and learners should be given a chance to establish balance between verbal and non-verbal learning. A myriad of task types is further covered in the chapter, including tasks prompting silent processing, tasks evoking spontaneous speech, and tasks triggering speech and silence. Factors influencing students’ choice of silence and speech are also covered.
The final chapter suggests further ideas for research themes on silence, including “established themes: growing research with helpful knowledge that informs the field; evolving themes: areas drawing researcher attention that should continue to do so; inactive themes: research with reiterated outcomes without much novel discovery; and under-explored themes: existing research gaps that need to be addressed” (Bao, 2023, p. 175). Scratching the surface of the large field of silence studies, the chapter calls for the need to conduct in depth interdisciplinary research of silence as a sociocultural, psychological, political, and communicative system, taking into account the context in which silence takes place.
Evaluation
The book “Silence in English Language Pedagogy” is a commendable work that offers an in-depth exploration of the instrumental role of silence in second language acquisition. Challenging the conventional pedagogical models that criminalize silence and predominantly favor verbal communication, the author puts forward well-argued perspectives that problematize various approaches towards the complex phenomenon of silence within English Language Teaching (ELT) and proposes practical innovative solutions to cope with undesirable aspects of silence in the classroom. Establishing a coherent and cohesive structure, the author solidly achieves his goal of addressing silence from a positive perspective and advocating greater use of silence in the classroom with his book.
The first half of the book offers a rich exploration of silence in educational settings and pedagogical practice. The author skillfully charts the evolution of research on silence from the early theories of inner speech dynamics to recent findings from teachers’ and learners’ authentic perceptions of silence. The first chapter offers a revised definition of silence moving beyond a simplistic absence of speech. The chapter’s strength lies particularly in its provocation for readers to question their understanding of silence and appreciate its potential role within education. However, as convincing as the arguments are, the effectiveness of the chapter lies in its power to change established mindsets. To revisit silence, a paradigm shift is necessary, which might be challenging to adopt for numerous educators. Acknowledging silence as an active agent in the learning process rather than a passive bystander may complicate pedagogical approaches, especially when imposed by educational institutions, and would require novel methods of assessment which can account for silent contributions. The second chapter, however, presents various interpretations of silence, a multipronged exploration underscoring its complex nature and illuminating its relationship with verbal output, which is a noteworthy strength of the chapter. The third chapter traces the development of silence research from the 1970s to the late 2020s and contrasts views from proponents to opponents, delineating intervention strategies, which is critical to understanding the current state and prospects of silence research. While the chapter is compelling, it is important to note an oversight: the lack of acknowledgement of silence as part of language attrition. Silence, or the absence of speech, often emerges as a major feature in language loss, both in first and second language acquisition settings. Addressing this dimension would have enriched the readers’ understanding of silence in the acquisition and attrition landscape. The fourth chapter focuses on practical aspects of silence as an educational tool and is strong in providing actionable strategies for learners and teachers to manage the learning space and stimulate internal reflection and productive speech alike. While these strategies are highly beneficial, they could have been further insightful had there been more elaboration on potential challenges and solutions when implementing them in culturally diverse learning environments. The fifth chapter, however, laudably recognizes the interplay between language, culture, and content, therefore extending the scope of silence studies beyond English language pedagogy. This invaluable acknowledgment amplifies the book’s relevance and must be further incorporated into the overall discourse, applying silence research to other linguistic and cultural contexts.
The second half of the book shifts its focus from problematizing silence to providing practical solutions in addressing unproductive and undesirable silence both in traditional and online learning environments. Upon perusal, Chapter 6 presents an intricate display of factors behind learners’ silence and offers a valuable set of strategies to intervene against negative silence in the classroom. The inclusion of case studies adds an impartial element of practicality to the theoretical basis, thereafter facilitating the readers’ understanding of the discussed elements. As the scope of the case studies remains confined, a more varied representation of sociocultural factors would have enhanced the applicability of the strategies put forward to a global audience. The subsequent Chapters 7 and 8 offer timely insights on silence in online learning environments given the global shift towards digital education. The author successfully encapsulates the dual nature of silence in online contexts both as a condition for effective learning and a barrier against it. However, the chapters could have further elaborated on the role of emerging technologies and their impact on online silence, and a further comparison and contrast between these environments could have provided a more nuanced understanding of the influence of instruction on silence. The ninth chapter is worth praising for exploring silence in task design, a welcome contribution to silence studies given the scarcity of research in this aspect. The final chapter outlines the need for continued contributions and highlights a promising trajectory for future research in the field of silence studies. The categorization of research themes is useful and the enumeration of areas of potential development is noteworthy. Nonetheless, a detailed discussion of the methodological approaches to these areas and a comprehensive roadmap depicting how future researchers ought to navigate them would be enriching for emerging scholars in the field.
In conclusion, the book “Silence in English Language Pedagogy: From Research to Practice” provides an extensive overview of silence and its presence, relevance, and application in the context of second language acquisition. As noted above, certain highlighted areas merit elaboration, particularly incorporating culturally responsive pedagogical approaches that would capture the topic more holistically and cater to a diverse student body whilst exploring the intersectionality of silence with other social, cultural, psychological, and technological factors. Nevertheless, the work stands as an undoubtedly pivotal piece of scholarship in its field and offers a substantial contribution to the discourse surrounding conventional pedagogical approaches, imploring the target readers to revise silence in education. The areas of improvement do not undermine the book’s core strength as a groundbreaking contribution to various research disciplines of English language teaching. All in all, this seminal book constitutes a robust foundation for the ensuing dialogue and offers a timely lens to an overlooked yet impactful aspect of language acquisition, thereafter opening the door for promising future empirical and theoretical research in the field.
References
Al-Halawachy, H. (2014). EFL learner’s silence at university level: Where to? Journal of Education and Practice, 5(12), 90–119.
Bao, D. (2002). Understanding silence and reticence: Action research in the Vietnamese EFL classroom. Unpublished PhD thesis, Leeds Beckett University
Bao, D. (2023). Silence in English Language Pedagogy. Cambridge University Press.
Boniecki, K. A. & Moore, S. (2003). Breaking the silence: Using a token economy to reinforce classroom participation. Teaching of Psychology, 30(3), 224–7.
Dallimore, E. J., Hertenstein, J. H. & Platt, M. B. (2006). Nonvoluntary class participation in graduate discussion courses: Effects of grading and cold calling. Journal of Management Education, 30(2), 354–77.
King, J. & Harumi, S. (2020). East Asian perspectives on silence in English language education: An introduction. In J. King & S. Harumi, eds., East Asian Perspectives on Silence in English Language Education. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 1–16.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. Harlow: Longman.
Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia, eds., Handbook of Research on Language Acquisition. New York: Academic Press, pp. 413–68.
Qian, Y. (2020). L2 communication as a social action: Silence in oral communication. In A. Jamshidnejad, ed., Speaking English As a Second Language. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 33–50.
Reinsch, R. & Wambsganss, J. R. (1994). Class participation: How it affects results on examinations. Journal of Education for Business, 70(1), 33–7.
Saville-Troike, M. (1988). Private speech: Evidence for second language learning strategies during the ‘silent period’. Journal of Child Language, 15, 567–90.
Tatar, S. (2005). Why keep silent? The classroom participation experiences of non-native-English-speaking students. Language and Intercultural Communication, 5, 284–93.
Wuttke, E. (2012). Silence is silver, talk is gold? Analysis of classroom talk in a learnercentred setting. In E. Hjörne, G. van der Aalsvoort & G. de Abreu, eds., Learning, Social Interaction and Diversity: Exploring Identities in School Practices. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, pp. 103–17.
Yashima, T., MacIntyre, P. D. & Ikeda, M. (2018). Situated willingness to communicate in an L2: Interplay of individual characteristics and context. Language Teaching Research, 22(1), 115–37.
Yi, J. (2020). Reticence as participation: Discourses of resistance from Asians in America. Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 42(2), 120–40.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Hanae Ezzaouya is a teacher at Károli Gáspár University and a CELTA certified instructor pursuing a Ph.D. in applied linguistics at Pázmány Péter Catholic University's Doctoral School of Linguistics in Budapest, Hungary. Her main research interests are applied linguistics, second language attrition, and language pedagogy.